Education Support Package - Teaching Strategies

When teaching students with disabilities it is important to choose the teaching strategy which is most effective for the particular student. This will depend upon student learning styles and the material being taught. This chapter discusses a range of teaching strategies which are regularly used by teachers working with students with disabilities.

The following information will be discussed.

• Communication
• Task Analysis
• Direct Instruction
• Prompts
• Peer Tutoring
• Cooperative Learning
• Cross Curriculum Issues
• Generalisation
• Assessment and Evaluation

Communication

Communication refers to a person's ability to use language to interact with their environment. This process may involve verbal and non-verbal skills and a variety of symbols (words, photos, pictures). Communication involves both receiving and giving information. If a student has communication difficulties then a speech pathologist can be contacted to assess and assist teachers to develop the student's communication skills and strategies.

Communicating with students with disabilities

The following points should be considered:

• Come down to the student's face level when talking or working with him/her.
• Make sure you have the student's attention before talking or presenting an activity.
• Keep your sentence short and concise, by breaking it down to the important words­
• Put slight emphasis on these words,
• (e.g. "put plate on the sink."
• NOT "come over here quickly and put your plate on the sink.")
• Keep the most important words (the ones you want the student to pick up) towards the end of your sentence,

• (e.g. "put the ball down."
• NOT "put the ball down over there.")
• Speak slowly and clearly but with normal volume and intonation. Remember the student's age and use appropriate language.

• Use additional cues while you are speaking to allow the student maximum understanding of what you are saying. These can include:
• facial expression;
• lip movements; and
• natural gestures such as hand moving up to signify 'up' or cupped hand to mouth to signify 'drink' etc.
• Repeat the message or the most important words in the message if necessary.
• If the student does not respond appropriately to your message, then use prompts which help the student understand the instruction.

NOTE: (Marshall & Brown, 1989. p30)

• Teach the student the desired response by modeling the response you require.
• Encourage the student to use the desired response.
• Try not to anticipate the individual's needs as this eliminates the need for him to communicate.
• Allow the individual time to respond and take a turn.
• Respond to the individual's attempts to initiate communication.
• Resist the urge to speak for the individual.

Strategies for developing communication skills

Provide the individual with appropriate language input.

• Limit the use of closed questions and commands.
• Use open ended questions (how/why questions).
• Talk about the 'here' and 'now'.
• Describe and comment about ongoing activities.
• Speak slowly and clearly.
• When talking to the individual, insert numerous pauses allowing for opportunities to imitate or add new information.
• Keep phrases short.
• Provide repetition of language concepts in cross curricular activities throughout the school day, (e.g. positional concepts: in, on, under, over).

Provide opportunities which encourage the individual to communicate .

When structuring the environment to encourage communication teach the student the response that you want.

• Place toys/objects out of the individual's reach to encourage the student to ask for them.
• Introduce activities that need more than one tool and deliberately forget to provide one of the tools, (e.g. provide the paintbrush and paper, but no paint).
• Common daily activities can be modified, (e.g. washing hands - place soap out of reach, forget towel for drying hands).
• At mealtimes, establish routines to encourage student to ask for food/drink, (e.g. withhold food/drink until student responds - initially may require prompts – see section in this chapter).
• Arrange for activities that take a short length of time that will require the child to request for 'more' or request another related activity, (e.g. pushing on a swing). . Present child with food/toy you know he/she doesn't like.
• Present an activity incorrectly, (e.g. brushing doll's hair with spoon).
• Put pictures upside down on classroom pin-up board.
• Occasionally misinterpret the child's message - this should encourage the child to attempt to clarify the message by providing more detail.

NOTE: Communication does not only refer to verbal skills but may include other forms

(see Therapy Chapter - Specialised Communication Equipment).

Further strategies to aid expressive language

• Choice making is the ability to choose a preferred item from a range. The student can choose from real objects, photos, pictures, symbols, written words and spoken words. The student may choose preferred item to draw with, eat, play with etc. Eye pointing, smiling, responding verbally and pointing are various ways the student can indicate choices.

• Cueing is a system that is used to support students in producing appropriate responses. An example may be giving the student leading questions to the answer or giving the first sound of the word.

• Scaffolding is a procedure that provides a structure for the student to respond. For example, when playing with Lego the teacher may discuss all aspects (e.g. size, shape) of the block to be chosen giving the student sufficient information to respond accurately.

• Modeling is a demonstration of the action or desired response at a level just above that at which they are functioning. For example, using comments during play to encourage expressive language in a four year old with two-word sentences.

• Expansion is the process used to expand the student's already acquired skills/ repertoire. For example, when a student is using three-word sentences, the adult may add in describing words or elements indicating time.

• Aided Language Stimulation (ALS). ALS is a teaching strategy in which a facilitator (e.g. parent, teacher) highlights (e.g. points) key symbols (e.g. COMPIC, photo) from an array of symbols as they speak to the person with the communication disorder.

It is recognised that if a student is exposed to adults who use symbol systems in context to communicate, then the student is more likely to learn to use the symbols themselves.

A teacher using ALS as a strategy to teach a student to use symbols must carefully think about which key words to choose in every situation across the day. They must then aim toward ENGINEERING their class environment to include easy access to the chosen symbols, so that the student may be exposed to their use in context, throughout the school day.

Note: For advice in structuring your classroom, contact your local speech

pathologist.

• Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS). PECS is a communication strategy involving the physical exchange of a picture symbol to achieve a desired outcome (e.g. an object or an event).

It is used to promote initiation of communication as giving a symbol is viewed as more active than pointing to a symbol. PECS is typically used in training autistic children but can be used successfully across disabilities. For specific training in how to use PECS, contact your local speech pathologist.

Task Analysis

Task Analysis (TA) is a procedure by which tasks are broken down into sequential component parts or steps. An objective is broken down into small steps arranged in order of complexity. Each step listed is a prerequisite for the subsequent one. By carefully specifying the discrete steps that students have to learn, teachers can more easily recognise whether students are making progress towards achieving the set task.

When to Task Analyse

When a student is unable to complete a task or does the task incorrectly, it will be necessary to look more closely at the student's performance of the task to determine the specific area of difficulty.

How to write a Task Analysis

• Define precisely what you want to teach the student in observable and measurable terms.

• Consider the prerequisite skills, (e.g. does the student have the necessary motor skills to complete the task?).

• Identify the beginning and end points of the task.

• List the steps involved in the task.

• Sequence the steps for teaching.

• Adapt the task analysis if necessary to account for a particular situation, or the specific needs of an individual.

• Establish criteria to determine mastery of the skill ­

(e.g. Patrick will undress for swimming, given verbal prompts only, within 15 minutes.)

(e.g. Given a choice of the numbers 1 and 2, Michael will point to the number 1, four out of five times.)

Teaching the steps in a Task Analysis

Once the steps in a task have been sequenced, the teacher then decides how to teach the steps. The steps can be taught through a process called chaining. Chaining involves the teaching and mastery of each step and then linking each mastered step to the next in the sequence. This linking or chaining process continues until the student has mastered each step in the task, therefore completing the entire task. There are two approaches to chaining - forward and backward.

Forward Chaining

This step is the process of teaching the first step in the task and progressing through the steps, in the order in which they naturally occur, until the task is completed.

Backward Chaining

The student is taught the task in the reverse order. The teacher assists the student through the first steps of the task and commences teaching at the point where the last step begins. In this way, the whole task is taught progressing backwards through the steps to the starting point.

The sequence selected will depend on the task and the student's learning style, and level of intellectual and physical ability.

Examples

Objective: The student removes lunch from lunch box and begins to eat.

Mastery Criteria: Given an initial prompt the student independently performs the targeted step on five consecutive days before progressing to the next step.

Objective: Mastery criteria

The student writes a recognisable capital letter 'R'.

The student completes each step successfully four times out of five before progressing to the next step.

* Dotted lines indicate step carried out by student.

Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a method of teaching which uses a highly structured step-by-step approach to deliver instruction. This method of teaching is particularly useful for students with disabilities to increase positive learning experiences thus improving self-confidence and motivation to achieve. Lessons are presented in an easy-to-Learn fashion so that students achieve success at each stage of the 'no-fail' process. The carefully planned lessons provide students with corrective feedback and frequent opportunities to practice the mastered skill. The main features of direct instruction are as follows:

Highly structured program

• Objectives are clearly identified.

• Skills are broken down and taught step-by-step.

• Lessons are structured to ensure a high level of student success.

• Teacher directs lesson.

Clear presentation

• Lessons are conducted face-to-face.

• Correct responses are modeled by teacher before asking students to answer, (e.g. "Your name is Mary." "What is your name?")

• High level of on-task student behaviour.

Corrective feedback

• Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately.

• Incorrect responses are corrected at point of error by teacher modeling the correct response and asking student to give correct response.

• Students do not progress through the lesson until mastery at the point of error is achieved.

Practice

• Students are given many opportunities to practice the correct answer/behaviour.

• Note: Commercial Direct Instruction packages are available

Example of a Direct Instruction Lesson

(Awareness of self)

Focus Skill: Identifying major body parts.

Example of a direct instruction lesson

(Coin recognition)

Learning Area: Foundation Outcome: Focus Skill:

Materials :

Mathematics

NF.I Recognises that numerals and numbers are used in daily life Sort/match coins

Twenty cent and five cent coins for teacher and each student

How to develop a direct instruction lesson

Specify your objective, e.g.

• sort 5c, 10c, 20c and 50c Coins

Work out the sequence in which you will teach this skill, e.g.

• sort 5c and 50c coins into respective groups
• sort 5c, 50c and 20c coins into respective groups
• sort 5c, 20c and l0c coins into respective groups

Work out the sequence in which you will teach this skill, e.

• sort 5c and 50c coins into respective groups
• sort 5c, 50c and 20c coins into respective groups
• sort 5c, 20c and l0c coins into respective groups

Decide what you intend to teach within the scope of one lesson, e.g.

Student sorts 5c and 20c coins

Plan the lesson so that tasks are presented in small, sequential steps, to reach the overall objective of the lesson.

Present the lesson

The lesson should:

• Present information clearly and unambiguously.
• Allow students to respond with a high degree of success.
• Allow a high level of student participation.
• Provide sufficient practice for mastery of the skill.
• Allow you as the instructor to determine student difficulty at the exact point where it occurs and to correct errors immediately.

In presenting the lesson, where errors occur more practice is given on that stage of the lesson and students do not move on until mastery is achieved.

However, if students do not make progress in a reasonable time, it may be necessary to modify or terminate the program.

Opportunities for generalisation of the skill being taught should be planned.

In subsequent lessons, skills already taught would be reviewed and new skills introduced.

Prompts

What is a prompt?

Prompts provide the student with extra information or assistance additional to the instruction.

Types of prompts

•  Verbal
• Visual
• Modeled
• Gestural
• Physical

These prompts form a hierarchy from the least to most intrusive and differ in the amount of assistance they provide to the student. Teachers should choose the prompt which is the least intrusive while giving the student sufficient additional information for the skill to be performed.

Prompts should provide only the level of assistance that the student requires to perform the task. Do not over-prompt.

Combine prompts if necessary. A teacher may combine a gestural and a verbal prompt to give the student additional information.

Teachers should select and use prompts as naturally as possible. If using a gestural prompt it should be a conventional gesture.

Ensure students are attending before providing them with a prompt.

Reduce prompts by gradually fading them as soon as possible.

Verbal prompts

Verbal prompts are additional to task directions. Task directions tell the student what to do. Verbal prompts give the student additional information on how to go about the task, (e.g. If a student is learning to use a computer, the task direction may be "Turn on your computer". A verbal prompt is "Put the disk in drive 1 and push the red switch.")

When giving a verbal prompt:

• establish eye contact;
• speak slowly;
• use simple language; and
• give short and direct instructions.

Modeling

Modeling is informing the student of what to do or how to do it by demonstrating the task. This can be used when the student does not understand what is meant by the verbal instruction but is able to imitate actions without physical assistance. This can be an extremely effective type of prompt when paired with a verbal prompt.

Gestural prompts

Gestural prompts include hand, and, facial or other body movements that communicate very specific visual information to the student. For a gestural prompt to be effective it must be readily understood by the student.

Gestural prompts:

• may compensate for student difficulty in understanding the spoken word;
• may add to information contained in verbal prompts;
• can be unobtrusive and discrete (e.g. use hand signal "stop" to stop inappropriate behaviour);
• are typically used in conjunction with verbal prompts; and
• can be used in situations where it is not practical to use a verbal prompt (e.g. over distance).

When delivering gestural prompts:

• make them as natural as possible (e.g. beckoning); and
• make them as specific as possible - gesture the action required ("come", "sit").

Illustrations of Makaton signs for "come" and "sit" - "come here" and "sit down"

Come Extend right hand crooked index finger and hold hand in front of body, move hand back in an arc towards centre of chest.

Sit Place open right hand on back of open left hand and move formation down slightly.

Physical prompts

Physical prompts involve physical contact and are therefore the most intrusive prompt for the student. Physical prompts should only be used when verbal, gestural and modeled prompts have not provided the student with enough information to carry out the task or if the student has not yet developed the physical skills necessary to perform the activity.

When using physical prompts gradually move from high intervention to low intervention with eventual fading (e.g. teacher holds student's hand and physically guides the movement gradually moving from wrist to arm until eventually the student is able to achieve the task independently.) N.B. 'Fading' occurs over a period of time.

The level/amount of physical contact necessary when using physical prompts will be determined by the degree of assistance the student requires with the task.

Peer Tutoring

Peer tutoring is a strategy where a competent learner is partnered with a peer who is experiencing difficulties. In this partnership the competent learner assumes the role of tutor.

The provision of adequate learning time is particularly relevant to students with special needs. Students with special needs learn more slowly than their non-disabled peers. Peer tutoring is a strategy that provides learning time with a high degree of student involvement.

Advantages of peer tutoring

• Provides individualised instruction.

• Allows students to proceed at their own pace.

• Allows high levels of student engagement with the learning task.

• Can accelerate skill learning.

• Can help improve the performance of both the tutor and the student.

• Is structured to provide consistent and immediate feedback.

• Gives the student a positive role model.

Considerations for planning an effective peer tutoring program

• Peer tutoring works more effectively if the tutor volunteers.

• The tutor should be capable of carrying out the program.

• Select a quiet distraction-free environment where the program can be conducted.

• The tutor needs to be trained prior to the program.

• Tutoring should be scheduled on a regular basis.

• Sessions should be of short duration.

• Instructional packages should be designed to provide the student with a high rate of success.

• You should plan for some form of reward/recognition for the tutor.

Steps in devising and implementing an effective peer tutoring program

• Focus on the skill(s) you wish to practice

• Select only explicit learning tasks.

• Select a realistic number of items to practice

• Prepare your instructional package. Include:
  • equipment and materials for the student;
  • a clearly defined sequence of activities;
  • instructions for the tutor;
  • a means of recording responses; and
  • a means of rewarding the student

• Train the tutor:

• familiarise tutor with materials;
• explain the recording procedure;
• explain the importance of immediate feedback and demonstrate reinforcement and correction procedures; and
• show the tutor how to conduct the session

• Implement the program

• monitor effectiveness of the program; and
• be prepared to make changes if required.

 

Cooperative Learning

What is cooperative learning?

Cooperative learning is one of the most effective and fun ways of bringing students with varying levels of ability together to work on a shared task. This approach promotes a positive, supportive environment which encourages self worth, respect for each other's contributions and acceptance of individual differences.

It's a form of group work in which:

• members of the group work towards a common task;
• each student has a specific task;
• students practice pre-taught social and cooperative learning skills;
• on completion of the task, the group and the teacher review which skills were successfully used and which skills need more practice; and
• group allocation is flexible - composition of the group can change depending on the mix of members required for a particular task.

What makes cooperative learning so effective with mixed ability classes?

There are two essential elements to this grouping approach

• Pre-teaching essential social and group skills:

• interaction skills (such as eye contact, smiling, personal space, body language and tone of voice);

• basic group skills (such as sharing, taking turns, listening and asking questions, expressing your opinion and including others);

• advanced group skills (such as helping through guidance without providing the answer, encouraging others, giving and receiving positive feedback); and

• group work skills (such as managing time, summarising, clarifying and decision­ making in a group).

Defining and allocating a specific role for each member of the group

Some benefits of specifying roles are that it:

• uses the strengths of individual members;
• ensures that all members actively contribute to the group task;
• encourages group members to help/support each other;
• can develop new positive relationships when students see a positive helpful side to less popular and less able students; and
• motivates students to learn from each other observing the ways in which others carry out their roles.

There are no set rules for defining roles within a group or ways of allocating roles. The teacher and/or students will identify special roles according to the nature of the task:

Director, Designer, Recorder, Gopher (goes for whatever), Artist, Assistant Artist, Time-keeper, Sound Technician, Collector, Typist, Encourager.......

Organisation of groups

Points to consider:

• size of group, (e.g. two-three members for younger students, four-five for older students are more effective); and
• composition of groups, (e.g. mixed ability, mixed gender, compatible combinations).

Adapting roles

Some roles can be given just as they are, but others need to be adapted.

Some suggestions are:

• give them additional equipment, (e.g. calculator)
• peer assistance, (e.g. pairing an able student with a less able student); and use modified equipment, (e.g. scissors, jigs).

Cross Curriculum Issues

Cross curriculum issues are matters which need consideration across all learning areas. Some aspects of students' learning must be considered for their participation across all learning areas.

These can include:

• Communication (e.g. use of communication systems and devices);
• Behaviour Management (e.g. individual contracts, sticker charts);
• Social Skills (e.g. skills required in the playground versus skills required in the classroom); and
• Physical Management (e.g. hoists, arm/leg splints, page turners).

These considerations are not addressed in isolation (though they can be), but as integral components across all curriculum areas.

Strategies for the management of cross curriculum issues should be clearly defined and understood by all staff working with the student.

For example: A student who is learning to communicate using an aided communication system is encouraged to use the system across all learning situations. Therefore, staffs who are working with the student require a clear understanding of this form of communication and how to implement it.

It is important that the strategies decided upon be applied consistently across all learning areas, in all settings, and by all staff.

Generalisation

What is generalisation ?

Generalisation occurs when skills learned in one setting are practiced in and transferred to a different setting, (e.g. a student who learns to read the male/female toilet sign in the classroom, and correctly reads the male/female sign when in the community, has generalised the skill from the classroom to the community.) While most people are able to transfer skills and knowledge from one situation to another, students with disabilities and learning difficulties do not easily do so. Therefore, it is necessary when teaching these students, to program for generalisation.

When programming for generalisation plan to:

• teach the skill in isolation if necessary;
• teach/use the skill in activities, situations and settings where it occurs -naturally;
• have students perform the skill for a number of different instructors; and
• provide frequent practice.

Skill - counting

An example of generalisation

Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment

The use of assessment in catering for students with learning difficulties and disabilities is necessary when making decisions about the student's program.

In order to assess and evaluate effectively, the teacher will need to keep records about student achievement of priority objectives as identified in the IEP.

An effective technique for assessing the progress of students with disabilities is to observe and record their efforts on a regular, ongoing basis as the teaching program is being implemented.

Information about performance may be gained in a variety of ways. This may include:

• observation of the student in informal situations;

• conversation with the student;

• observation of student performing a structured learning sequence;

• observation of student performing a specific learning task;

• work samples;

• testing student in a specific situation; and

• photos and videos.

Well-kept data can provide a wealth of information including:

• evidence of gradual progress which the teacher might otherwise not observe;

• identification of where the student is having difficulty to enable the modification of the program if necessary;

• identification of any variables which may be affecting student performance; and

• providing the basis of reporting to parents.

When recording data, use formats which:

• allow performance to be easily recorded;
• allow results to be easily interpreted;
• allow sufficient information to be collected; and
• allow for the recording of data over sufficient instructional sessions for patterns in student performance to emerge.

It is important to describe precisely the behaviours being measured, and the conditions under which the performance is to be assessed. This allows for data collected on different occasions and by different people to be consistent. How often data is recorded will vary according to individual students and particular educational situations. A teacher may decide to carry out the instruction daily but record the progress once a week or progress may be recorded during each instructional session.

Following are examples of data collection formats:

Example 1

Learning Area : Mathematics

Foundation Outcome : Recognises numerals used in daily life

Focus Skills : Match numbers to 5

Scoring √ correctly matches number

∙ incorrect match - please note number matched to

The example demonstrates :

A simple system:

• The performance is easily and quickly recorded.

• The data clearly shows John's results.

Collection of sufficient information:

• The sheet allows for collation of information over 10 teaching and learning sessions and could be easily altered to increase this.

• Data collected will provide information on exactly which numbers John can/cannot match.

• Records will show exactly what error John is making.

• Comments made will provide further information relevant to John's performance.

Consistent collection of data

The information at the top of the sheet tells the instructor/assessor ­

• what the student has to do;
• what materials to use;
• how to present the task;
• what to say to the student; and
• how to score the result.

This allows for consistency in presenting the task and scoring the result across a range of teaching sessions or with a variety of instructors.

Example 2

The teacher has Ann on a program to return to class independently after recess breaks.

This has been modeled for her and she has been rewarded for coming into class.

The teacher is recording Ann's progress on the program by noting frequency of her returning to the classroom.

Example 3

Keith is learning to copy his name. The teacher needs to know what progress he is making, how much assistance he needs and which letters he is having specific difficulty with.

Learning Area : English

Strand: Writing

An alternative way to record progress here would be to note on Keith's work how he has performed and keep work samples over a period of time.

Evaluation

Once data has been collected on student performance, it can be used to evaluate student program. The data provides an information base for making decisions about the program. Based on the student's progress towards achieving objectives, as evidenced by the data, the teacher may decide that:

• The student is making good progress and the program should be continued.
• The student has mastered the objective and should begin working towards a new objective.
• The student is not making satisfactory progress and the program should be re­ examined. Aspects of the program such as the teaching strategies, or the reinforcer being used, may need to be changed.
• The objective is too difficult for the student at this stage and the program should be discontinued.